Artemis II Rollout Weekend: NASA Preps Moon Mission + ESA Hacked & Jupiter's Oxygen Surprise

0:00 Anna: Hello, space fans. Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source for the latest news from across the cosmos. I'm Anna. Avery: And I'm Avery. Great to have you with us today. We've got a really exciting lineup of storeys covering everything from upcoming missions to mysterious discoveries. Anna: That's right. We're starting with some big news from NASA. Artemis 2 is entering its final preparations for the first crewed mission beyond low Earth orbit in over 50 years. The rollout to the launch pad happens this weekend.

0:31 Weekend. Avery: Very exciting. We'll also be talking about a serious cybersecurity breach at the European Space Agency. China's ambitious satellite launches to kick off 2026 and the surprising discovery about Jupiter's atmosphere. Anna: Plus, we have an intriguing cosmic mystery. Astronomers have found a massive bar of iron hidden m inside the famous Ring Nebula. And we'll wrap up with a fascinating look back at the Apollo 14 moon trees and what happened to them. Avery: Lots to cover. So let's get started.

1:04 Anna: All right, Avery, let's dive into our top storey. NASA is entering the final stages of preparation for Artemis ii and the excitement is really building. Avery: This is huge, Anna. We're talking about the first crewed mission beyond low Earth orbit in over 50 years. The launch window opens as early as February 6, though it could extend into April depending on final preparations. Anna: And this weekend is a major milestone. Right, the rollout to the launch pad. Avery: Exactly. Targeted for no earlier than this Saturday, January 17th.

1:36 The Space Launch System rocket and Orion spacecraft will make that slow journey from the Vehicle Assembly Building to launch pad 39B at Ah, Kennedy Space Centre. It's about 6.5 kilometres or 4 miles, and it'll take up to 12 hours on the Crawler transporter. Anna: That's the same launch pad used for Apollo, isn't it? Avery: It is. Launch pad 39B has quite a history. Now, the Artemis 2 crew consists of four astronauts. NASA's Reid Wiseman as Commander, Victor Glover as pilot, Christina Koch as mission specialist, and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen, also a mission specialist.

2:13 Anna: This mission is essentially a dress rehearsal for the actual lunar landing, correct? Avery: Right. Artemis 2 will be a 10 day circumlunar flight. They'll loop around the moon without landing and return to Earth. It's building on the success of Artemis I uncrewed mission. And paving the way for Artemis 3, currently scheduled for 2028, which will put humans back on the lunar surface for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. Anna: I know they've been working around the clock to get everything ready.

2:44 Have there been any challenges? Avery: There have Been some. Back in December, during a countdown demonstration, test engineers detected a problem with a valve associated with the Orion capsule's hatch pressurisation system. They replaced that valve on January 5th and successfully completed a pressure test. They also resolved a leak in the ground support hardware that pressurises Orion with oxygen gas. Anna: So what happens once it's at the launch pad? Avery: Ground crews will connect all the electrical lines, fuel control system ducts, cryogenic propellant feeds and other ground support equipment.

3:18 Then they'll power up all the rocket's integrated systems for the first time to make sure everything works together. The rocket, the mobile launcher and the launch pad infrastructure. Anna: And then comes the wet dress rehearsal. Avery: Scheduled for the end of January. That's when they'll load the rocket with about 2.65 million litres. That's 700,000 gallons of cryogenic fuel, conduct a launch countdown and then safely unload it. They'll run through several countdown holds and recycles, just like they would during an actual launch.

3:48 Anna: Dazzle learned a lot from Artemis I's wet dress rehearsal, didn't they? Avery: They did. Particularly around loading liquid hydrogen propellant. They experienced some challenges with that, so they'll be monitoring very careful. They're also watching how much nitrogen gas accumulates between the Orion crew module and the launch abort system using recently updated procedures. Anna: And if all goes well with the. Avery: Wet dress rehearsal, then NASA's mission management team will hold a flight readiness review to assess whether all systems are truly ready.

4:19 Only then will they commit to a firm launch date. And of course, the Artemis II astronauts will conduct a final walk down at the pad, which will be quite a media event. Anna: The launch windows are interesting too, aren't they? It's not every day in February and April. Avery: That's right. Due to the complex orbital mechanics of Earth and the moon, there's a pattern of about a, uh, week of launch opportunities followed by three weeks without any. NASA has published the specific dates between February and April when launches are possible.

4:50 Anna: This is such an exciting time. 50 years since we've sent humans beyond. Avery: Low Earth orbit and it's setting the stage for sustainable lunar exploration. Crew safety remains NASA's top priority every step of the way. As ah, Lori Glaze, Acting associate administrator for NASA's Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate, emphasised in their recent statement. Anna: Moving on to some concerning news. Avery. The European Space Agency has suffered a significant cyberattack. Avery: Unfortunately, yes.

5:22 This happened just after Christmas on Boxing Day, actually. A hacker operating under the codename 888 dumped over 200 gigabytes of ESA data onto dark web forums. Anna: What kind of data are we talking about? Avery: The leaked information included proprietary software, authorization credentials, access tokens and sensitive project documentation. ESA initially downplayed the breach, saying its impact was limited to servers with unclassified documents. Anna: But there was more to the storey. Avery: There was.

5:54 Just a week later, a cybercrime group known as Scattered Lapsis Hunters claimed they stole another 500 gigabytes of data, saying the security hole was still unpatched. This batch reportedly included operational procedures, spacecraft and mission details, subsystems documentation and even proprietary data from esa contractors like SpaceX, Airbus Group and Thales Alenia Space. Anna: That's pretty serious. How did ESA respond? Avery: They've launched a criminal investigation and are fully cooperating with authorities.

6:26 In a press briefing on January 8, Eric Morel de Westgaver, ESA's director of European Legal and International Matters, said the authorities will manage communication about the case and handle the criminal proceedings. Anna: Is this kind of attack common against space agencies? Avery: More common than you think. Cybersecurity researcher Clemence Poirier from the Centre for security studies at ETH Zurich told Space.com that during her research she frequently encounters email credentials of ESA employees and even other space agencies being sold on dark web forums.

7:01 Anna: How are these credentials being obtained? Avery: Poirier suggests it may be due to a lack of cyber hygiene from ESA staff. Threat actors may have used infostealer malware, which harvests data stored in web browsers. Things like credentials, session cookies, multi factor authentication data and even saved credit cards. Anna: That's pretty insidious. Avery: It is. These infostealers are particularly dangerous because they can evade detection by antivirus software. They often spread through malicious ads on popular websites or infected links in YouTube video descriptions.

7:36 Anna: And NASA faces similar threats. Avery: According to sources familiar with space cyber risk environment, NASA is actually a frequent victim. Vulnerabilities are being disclosed almost every day via the crowdsourced cybersecurity platform bugcrowd. Anna: Even though the recent ESA leaks didn't seem highly critical, there are still concerns, right? Avery: Absolutely. Poyer warned that this data could be combined with information from future breaches to reveal strategic information that could enable another cyberattack against the space system.

8:08 We're not there yet, but it's an important consideration. Anna: And vulnerabilities might exist with third party providers, too. Avery: Exactly. The security holes could be on the side of Issa's software providers or other third parties they purchase services from. Or ESA's own networks might be hiding unpatched vulnerabilities that hackers could exploit. Anna: What's the bottom line here, as Poyer. Avery: Put it, data leaks and breaches against space agencies are common. It can happen to each agency and will happen to each agency in the future.

8:38 Given the rise of cyber attacks against the space sector, it's a reality that all space organisations need to take very seriously. Anna: Let's shift gears to some space activity from China. They've kicked off 2026 with a couple of impressive satellite launches. Avery: They really have, anna. Uh. On January 13th, China launched two Long March rockets from the Wing Chan Space Launch Centre, representing a strong start to what's expected to be a very busy year for their space programme. Anna: What were they launching?

9:06 Avery: The first mission carried the Yaogon 5001 remote sensing satellite and the second deployed a series of GU satellites into low Earth orbit. Both launches were successful and marked the beginning of what China hopes will be a ah record breaking year. Anna: Tell us about the Yaogon 50 01. That sounds interesting. Avery: It is. This satellite was launched aboard a Long March 6A AH Rocket and it's notable for its unusual orbit. Unlike typical satellites in standard low Earth orbits, Yaogon 50 01's orbit is designed to maximise its ability to observe Earth from unique angles, providing broader and more detailed views of the planet.

9:43 Anna: What will it be used for? Avery: It's part of China's growing portfolio of remote sensing technology, which has applications ranging from agricultural monitoring to, let's be honest, military surveillance. As China develops and deploys more of these satellites, they're positioning themselves as a leader in Earth observation capabilities. Anna: And it'll also help with natural disaster monitoring and resource management. Avery: Absolutely. It'll contribute to monitoring natural disasters, managing resources and supporting scientific research efforts globally.

10:14 The satellite is quite advanced in terms of what it can do now. Anna: What about the Guawang satellites? Avery: The Guawang constellation is designed to improve China's capabilities in telecommunications, Earth observation and scientific research. By placing these satellites in low Earth orbit, China will be able to provide enhanced communication services, including high speed data transmission over large regions. Anna: So it's not just for China domestically. Avery: No. It'll improve their global connectivity, particularly in areas with limited access to terrestrial communication networks and beyond just communications.

10:49 The Guawuang Constellation is expected to play a crucial role in supporting China's future space exploration goals. Anna: How so? Avery: By providing real time communication and data transfer capabilities, these satellites will be instrumental in supporting future missions to the Moon and Mars. It's all part of China's integrated approach to building space infrastructure. Anna: This seems like quite an ambitious start to the year. Avery: It really is. According to the China Aerospace Corporation These missions underscore China's growing capabilities and commitment to expanding their space exploration infrastructure.

11:22 And this is just the beginning. They have many more launches planned throughout 2026. Anna: It's fascinating to see how competitive the space sector has become with multiple nations ramping up their capabilities. Avery: Indeed, we're in a new era of space activity. And it's not just government agencies anymore. The combination of national programmes and commercial ventures is really accelerating progress. Anna: All right, Avery, let's head out to Jupiter for our next storey. Scientists have made a surprising discovery about the gas giant's atmosphere.

11:53 Avery: This is really interesting, Anna. Anna: Uh. Avery: A new study published in the Planetary Science Journal reveals that Jupiter holds roughly 1.5 times more oxygen than our sun. Anna: That's way more than expected, isn't it? Avery: It is. For decades, studies have disagreed about how much oxygen Jupiter contains. Some recent studies even suggested it was much less than the sun. So this finding significantly reshapes our understanding of the planet's composition. Anna: Why is oxygen content so important?

12:22 Avery: Oxygen is one of the most abundant elements in the universe, and its presence on Jupiter has big implications. As Jiheng Yang, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago and the study's lead author, explained, the precise quantity of oxygen offers important clues about how Jupiter formed and how our solar system evolved. Anna: Because oxygen is key to water formation. Avery: Exactly. Understanding its presence and distribution could help researchers learn more about the conditions that allow for the formation of habitable planets, both in our solar system and beyond.

12:55 Anna: Jupiter's atmosphere is famously difficult to study. Avery: Though that's putting it mildly. The thick clouds covering the planet the Great Red Spot, which is a storm twice the size of Earth, and other violent weather patterns have kept scientists from getting a clear view of what lies beneath the surface. Anna: Previous missions couldn't measure deep into the atmosphere. Avery: The Galileo spacecraft couldn't. But more recently, the Juno spacecraft has provided valuable data on the upper layers, including measurements of ammonia, methane and carbon monoxide.

13:25 Still, building an accurate model has been challenging. Anna: What made this new model different? Avery: The researchers integrated both chemistry and hydrodynamics, the study of how fluids move. As Jihong Yang explained, you really need both. Chemistry alone doesn't include water droplets or cloud behaviour, while hydrodynamics alone oversimplifies the chemistry. Bringing them together allows for much more accurate predictions. Anna: And they discovered something else surprising too, didn't they?

13:53 Avery: They did. The study revealed that the movement of gases within Jupiter's atmosphere is far slower than previously believed. The diffusion of molecules is 35 to 40 times slower than the standard assumption. Anna: What does that mean? Avery: Practically, as Jihengyang put it, it would take a single molecule several weeks to move through one layer of the atmosphere, rather than hours. This slower diffusion could have significant implications for how heat and chemical elements are transported within the planet.

14:21 And it may affect how clouds form and dissipate. Anna: This must challenge a lot of existing assumptions about gas giant atmospheres. Avery: It does. The discovery adds another layer of complexity to our understanding and shows that even well studied planets like Jupiter still have prizes in store. This is the most comprehensive atmospheric model of Jupiter to date, but clearly there's still more to learn. Anna: We'll be sure to follow up this one with interest. Avery: Anna. Uh, our next storey is about a cosmic mystery hiding in plain sight, or rather hiding in one of the night sky's most famous objects.

14:56 Anna: Oh, this is the Ring Nebula discovery. Right. I was reading about this. It's fascinating, it really is. Avery: Astronomers have discovered a mysterious bar shaped cloud of iron inside the iconic Ring Nebula. And it went completely unnoticed for decades, despite this being one of the most studied objects in space. Anna: How did they finally spot it? Avery: A European team led by researchers at University College London and Cardiff University used a new instrument called weave, the WHT Enhanced Area Velocity Explorer, installed on the William Herschel Telescope.

15:33 The key was that WEAVE allowed them to obtain spectra across the entire face of the nebula at all optical wavelengths simultaneously. Anna: So it wasn't about getting a sharper image, but analysing the light differently. Avery: Exactly. Dr. Roger Wesson, the lead author, explained that by painting a spectrum continuously across the whole nebula, they could create images at any wavelength and determine the chemical composition at any position. And when they processed the data, this iron bar just popped out, clear as anything.

16:07 Anna: How big is this thing? Avery: The bar's length is roughly 500 times that of Pluto's orbit around the Sun. And get this. The mass of iron atoms is comparable to the mass of Mars. Anna: That's colossal. And it fits inside the Ring Nebula's inner region. Avery: It does. It's shaped like a narrow strip that fits neatly within the nebula's elliptical inner layer. The part that's familiar from all those beautiful images we've seen from telescopes including the James Webb Space Telescope. Anna: So what is the Ring Nebula exactly?

16:41 For our listeners who might not know. Avery: The Ring Nebula, also known as Messier 57, was first identified in 1779 by French astronomer Charles Messier. It's what's called a planetary nebula, a shell of gas created when a star reaches the end of its fuel burning life and releases its outer layers into space. In several billion years, our own sun is expected to undergo a, ah, similar transformation. Anna: And this iron bar, do we know how it formed? Avery: That's the mystery. The scientists honestly don't know yet.

17:15 Professor Albert Zylstra from the University of Manchester noted that they selected the Ring Nebula as an early target because it's bright, well studied and ideal for testing the instrument. But then they found something entirely unexpected. Anna: What are the theories? Avery: There are two main scenarios. First, the iron bar might reveal something new about how the nebula was ejected by the parent star, perhaps showing an uneven or directional outflow in the process. Second, and more intriguingly, the iron might be an arc of plasma resulting from the vaporisation of a destroyed planet.

17:53 Anna: A planet that got too close to. Avery: The dying star, possibly as the star expanded into a red giant late in its life. Any rocky planet that wandered too close could have been torn apart by extreme heat and radiation. Living behind this metal rich cloud, trapped inside the nebula, that would be quite. Anna: A dramatic end for a planet. Do they think this iron bar is unique? Avery: Dr. Wesson doesn't think so. He said it would be very surprising if the Ring Nebula's iron bar is unique. Weave is conducting surveys of many more ionised nebulae across the northern Milky Way and they hope to discover more examples of this phenomenon which would help them understand where the iron comes from.

18:34 Anna: It's amazing that such a familiar object still had this hidden. Avery: Amen, um, to that. Professor Janet Drew also at ucl cautioned that they need to know more particularly if any other chemical elements coexist with the iron as uh, that would help determine the right model to pursue. They're planning follow up studies using WEAVE at higher spectral resolution. Anna: Just goes to show that even the most studied objects can surprise us when we look at them in new ways. Avery: Amen um, to that.

19:03 Anna: For our final storey. Today we're taking a look back at a fascinating piece of Apollo history. Avery, tell us about the Moon trees. Avery: This is such a cool storey. Anna. Um, when Apollo 14 returned to Earth in 1971, it brought back something unexpected. Hundreds of tree seeds that had orbited the Moon. Anna: These were part of a scientific experiment. Avery: It started as a small experiment led by astronaut Stuart Roosa, who was a former U.S. forest Service smokejumper. Before becoming an astronaut, he carried several hundred seeds in his personal loblolly pine, sycamore, sweetgum, redwood and Douglas fir.

19:43 Anna: And there was an accident with these seeds, wasn't there? Avery: There was. As NASA recounts, the seed bags burst open during the decontamination procedures after the spacecraft returned to Earth. The seeds scattered around the chamber and were exposed to vacuum. And everyone thought they might not be. Anna: Viable, but they decided to try planting them anyway. Avery: They did, to test whether the seeds had survived. And the results were extraordinary. Many sprouted and grew just like normal trees, showing no visible damage from their cosmic journey.

20:16 Anna: How many trees eventually grew? Avery: Over 400 seedlings grew into mature trees. Some were planted beside earth grown control trees to compare their development. And remarkably, after years of observation, no differences were found between the space flown seeds and their earth bound counterparts. Anna: When were these trees distributed? Avery: M the distribution coincided with the U.S. bicentennial celebrations of 1975 and 1976. Most were given to state forest reorganisations to be planted as part of the nation's bicentennial celebration.

20:50 The trees were only sent to countries and states where they could actually be grown and thrive. Anna: And some went to pretty notable places, right? Avery: Oh, yes, A, uh, loblolly pine was planted at the White House. Trees were sent to Brazil, Switzerland and even presented to the Emperor of Japan. Each tree served as a living connection between space exploration and Earth's natural environment. Anna: There were telegrams that accompanied the trees. Avery: NASA sent telegrams highlighting their symbolic importance.

21:21 The message read that the tree is a living symbol of our spectacular human and scientific achievements. And the fitting tribute to our national space programme, which has brought out the best of American patriotism, dedication and determination to succeed. Anna: That really captures the spirit of that era. Avery: It does. It was this beautiful blend of scientific curiosity and national pride during the Apollo years. Each moon tree represented not just a triumph of space exploration, but a reminder that the pursuit of knowledge can be rooted quite literally in the natural world.

21:57 Anna: Many of these trees are still standing today. Avery: They are. Their plaques may be faded, but their symbolism remains intact. NASA continues to track and document the locations of surviving moon trees. And there's even a modern continuation of this project. Anna: The Moon Tree 2.0 project. Avery: Exactly. It uses seeds taken aboard the Orion spacecraft during the Artemis 1 mission. So this initiative bridges past and future, connecting the pioneering Apollo missions to the next generation of lunar explorers.

22:29 Anna: I love that these trees serve as both scientific curiosities and powerful symbols. Avery: They really do. From forests across the United States to royal gardens overseas, these trees stand as silent witnesses to one of the most extraordinary chapters in human history. Their storey rooted in science. Resilience and wonder remains a testament to what happens when curiosity literally takes flight beyond Earth's atmosphere. Anna: Well, that wraps up today's episode of Astronomy Daily. We covered quite a journey today from NASA's preparations to return humans to lunar orbit to cybersecurity security challenges in the space sector, China's expanding satellite network, surprising discoveries about Jupiter, a mysterious iron bar hidden in a famous nebula, and the enduring legacy of the moon trees.

23:19 Avery: It's episodes like this that really show the breadth of space science and exploration. Whether it's cutting edge missions, astronomical discoveries, or looking back at historic achievements, there's always something fascinating happening in space. Anna: Thanks so much for joining us today. If you enjoyed the show, please subscribe and leave us a review. It really helps other space enthusiasts find us. Avery: And if you have questions or topics you'd like us to cover, reach out to us on social media.

23:48 We love hearing from our listeners. Anna: Until next time, keep looking up Clear skies everyone.